16.66. sfs

The sfs tool can add more detail to a DEM using shape-from-shading ([AB18]). The parallel_sfs program (Section 16.51) extends sfs to run using multiple processes on multiple machines.

16.66.1. Illustration

SfS_Comet_67P.png

Fig. 16.33 Refining the surface of Comet 67P with shape-from-shading ([JBH+24]). Left: produced terrain. Right: input image. Other examples are in Section 13 (for LRO NAC images), and in Section 8.14.5 (for Kaguya Terrain Camera images).

16.66.2. Usage

sfs -i <input DEM> -n <max iterations> -o <output prefix> \
  [other options] <images> <cameras>

The tool outputs at each iteration the current DEM and other auxiliary and appropriately-named datasets, which are documented further down.

16.66.3. Example

sfs --max-iterations 5 --use-approx-camera-models    \
  --crop-input-images --bundle-adjust-prefix ba/run  \
   -i input_dem.tif image1.cub image2.cub -o run/run

See many detailed worked-out examples for LRO NAC in Section 13, and an example for the Kaguya Terrain Camera in Section 8.14.5.

16.66.4. Inputs

The SfS program takes as input a DEM to refine, images, cameras (contained within the .cub image files for ISIS data), Sun positions (normally embedded in the cameras), and (optionally but strongly suggested) camera adjustments, which makes sure the images are registered to each other and to the ground (the detailed examples in Section 13 discuss this).

16.66.5. Outputs

The sfs outputs are saved at the location given by the output prefix (option -o). If that is set to run/run as in the example above, the outputs are:

  • run/run-DEM-final.tif - The refined SfS DEM.

  • run/run-comp-albedo-final.tif - The computed albedo. All its values are 1 unless the option --float-albedo is used.

  • run/run-exposures.txt - computed exposures for the images. These can be passed back to sfs via --image-exposures-prefix.

  • run/run-<image>-final-meas-intensity.tif - For each input image, this has the actual (measured) image values at each refined DEM grid point.

  • run/run-<image>-final-comp-intensity.tif - For each input image, this has the simulated image values at each refined DEM grid point using the reflectance model and the Sun position for the current image. If the modeling is perfect, the measured input image will precisely agree with the simulated (modeled) image. In reality these are close but different.

  • run/run-<image>-final-meas-albedo.tif - This stores the measured input image divided by the exposure times computed reflectance. Hence this is more of an input quantity rather than the result of computing the albedo. That one is mentioned above.

In addition, SfS saves intermediate values of many of these quantities at each iteration, unless the flag --save-sparingly is used. SfS may also save the “haze” values if this is solved for (see the appropriate options below).

16.66.6. Command-line options for sfs

-i, --input-dem <filename>

The input DEM to refine using SfS.

--image-list

A file containing the list of images, when they are too many to specify on the command line. Use space or newline as separator. See also --camera-list.

--camera-list

A file containing the list of cameras, when they are too many to specify on the command line. If the images have embedded camera information, such as for ISIS, this file must be empty but must be specified if --image-list is specified.

-o, --output-prefix <string>

Prefix for output filenames.

-n, --max-iterations <integer (default: 10)>

Set the maximum number of iterations. Normally 5-10 iterations is enough, even when convergence is not reached, as the solution usually improves quickly at first and only very fine refinements happen later.

--reflectance-type <integer (default: 1)>

Reflectance types: 0. Lambertian 1. Lunar-Lambert 2. Hapke 3. Experimental extension of Lunar-Lambert 4. Charon model (a variation of Lunar-Lambert).

--smoothness-weight <float (default: 0.04)>

The weight given to the cost function term which consists of sums of squares of second-order derivatives. A larger value will result in a smoother solution with fewer artifacts. The range can be in 0.01 – 10,000. A discussion of this term is in [LSAM21]. See also --gradient-weight.

--initial-dem-constraint-weight <float (default: 0)>

A larger value will try harder to keep the SfS-optimized DEM closer to the initial guess DEM. A value between 0.0001 and 0.001 may work, unless your initial DEM is very unreliable.

--albedo-constraint-weight <float (default: 0)>

If floating the albedo, a larger value will try harder to keep the optimized albedo close to the nominal value of 1. See also --albedo-robust-threshold.

--albedo-robust-threshold <float (default: 0)>

If floating the albedo and this threshold is positive, apply a Cauchy loss with this threshold to the product of the albedo difference and the albedo constraint weight.

--bundle-adjust-prefix <path>

Use the camera adjustments obtained by previously running bundle_adjust with this output prefix.

--float-albedo

Float the albedo for each pixel. Will give incorrect results if only one image is present. The albedo is normalized, its nominal value is 1.

--float-exposure

Float the exposure for each image. Will give incorrect results if only one image is present. It usually gives marginal results.

--float-cameras

Float the camera pose for each image except the first one. It is suggested that this option be avoided and bundle adjustment be used instead.

--float-all-cameras

Float the camera pose for each image, including the first one. Experimental. It is suggested to avoid this option.

--shadow-thresholds <arg>

Optional shadow thresholds for the input images (a list of real values in quotes, one per image).

--shadow-threshold <arg>

A shadow threshold to apply to all images instead of using individual thresholds. (Must be positive.)

--custom-shadow-threshold-list <arg>

A list having one image and one shadow threshold per line. For the images specified there, override the shadow threshold supplied by other means with this value.

--robust-threshold <arg>

If positive, set the threshold for the robust measured-to-simulated intensity difference (using the Cauchy loss). Any difference much larger than this will be penalized. A good value may be 5% to 25% of the average image value or the same fraction of the computed image exposure values.

--estimate-height-errors

Estimate the SfS DEM height uncertainty (in meters) by finding the height perturbation at each grid point which will make at least one of the simulated images at that point change by more than twice the discrepancy between the unperturbed simulated image and the measured image. The SfS DEM must be provided via the -i option. The number of iterations, blending parameters (--blending-dist, etc.), and smoothness weight are ignored. Results are not computed at image pixels in shadow. This produces <output prefix>-height-error.tif. No SfS DEM is computed. This uncertainty may be somewhat optimistic ([JBH+24]).

--height-error-params <double integer (default: 5.0 1000)>

Specify the largest height deviation to examine (in meters), and how many samples to use from 0 to that height.

--model-shadows

Model the fact that some points on the DEM are in the shadow (occluded from the Sun).

--sun-positions <string>

A file having on each line an image name and three values in double precision specifying the Sun position in meters in ECEF coordinates (origin is planet center). Use a space as separator. If not provided, these will be read from the camera file for ISIS and CSM models.

--save-dem-with-nodata

Save a copy of the DEM while using a no-data value at a DEM grid point where all images show shadows. To be used if shadow thresholds are set.

--use-approx-camera-models

Use approximate camera models for speed. Only with ISIS .cub cameras.

--use-rpc-approximation

Use RPC approximations for the camera models instead of approximate tabulated camera models (invoke with --use-approx-camera-models). This is broken and should not be used.

--rpc-penalty-weight <float (default: 0.1)>

The RPC penalty weight to use to keep the higher-order RPC coefficients small, if the RPC model approximation is used. Higher penalty weight results in smaller such coefficients.

--coarse-levels <integer (default: 0)>

Solve the problem on a grid coarser than the original by a factor of 2 to this power, then refine the solution on finer grids. Experimental. It is suggested to not use this option.

--max-coarse-iterations <integer (default: 10)>

How many iterations to do at levels of resolution coarser than the final result.

--crop-input-images

Crop the images to a region that was computed to be large enough and keep them fully in memory, for speed.

--blending-dist <integer (default: 0)>

Give less weight to image pixels close to no-data or boundary values. Enabled only when crop-input-images is true, for performance reasons. Blend over this many pixels. See also --blending-power, --min-blend-size and --allow-borderline-data. See example in Section 13.9.

--blending-power <double (default: 2.0)>

Raise the blending weights (they are no more to 1.0) to this power. A higher value will result in smoother (but more abrupt) blending as the weights decay faster close to 0.

--min-blend-size <integer (default: 0)>

Do not apply blending in shadowed areas of dimensions less than this. This avoids losing data around small holes, but the solution may become less smooth.

--compute-exposures-only

Quit after saving the exposures. This should be done once for a big DEM, before using these for small sub-clips without recomputing them.

--image-exposures-prefix <path>

Use this prefix to optionally read initial exposures (filename is <path>-exposures.txt).

--save-computed-intensity-only

Save the computed (simulated) image intensities for given DEM, images, cameras, and reflectance model, without refining the DEM. The exposures will be computed along the way unless specified via --image-exposures-prefix, and saved to <output prefix>-exposures.txt.

--allow-borderline-data

At the border of the region where there are no lit pixels in any images, do not let the blending weights decay to 0. This noticeably improves the level of detail. The sfs_blend (Section 16.67) tool may need to be used to further tune this region. See an illustration in Section 13.8.2.

--model-coeffs-prefix <path>

Use this prefix to optionally read model coefficients from a file (filename is <path>-model_coeffs.txt).

--model-coeffs <string of space-separated numbers>

Use the model coefficients specified as a list of numbers in quotes. For example:

  • Lunar-Lambertian: O, A, B, C, would be "1 -0.019 0.000242 -0.00000146"

  • Hapke: omega, b, c, B0, h, would be "0.68 0.17 0.62 0.52 0.52"

  • Charon: A, f(alpha), would be "0.7 0.63"

--crop-win <xoff yoff xsize ysize>

Crop the input DEM to this region before continuing.

--init-dem-height <float (default: NaN)>

Use this value for initial DEM heights (measured in meters, relative to the datum). An input DEM still needs to be provided for georeference information.

--nodata-value <float (default: nan)>

Use this as the DEM no-data value, over-riding what is in the initial guess DEM.

--float-dem-at-boundary

Allow the DEM values at the boundary of the region to also float (not advised).

--fix-dem

Do not float the DEM at all. Useful when floating the model params.

--float-reflectance-model

Allow the coefficients of the reflectance model to float (not recommended).

--query

Print some info, including DEM size and the solar azimuth and elevation for the images, and exit. Invoked from parallel_sfs.

-t, --session-type <string (default: “”)>

Select the stereo session type to use for processing. Usually the program can select this automatically by the file extension, except for xml cameras. See Section 16.52.5 for options.

--steepness-factor <double (default: 1)>

Try to make the terrain steeper by this factor. This is not recommended in regular use.

--curvature-in-shadow <double (default: 0)>

Attempt to make the curvature of the DEM (the Laplacian) at points in shadow in all images equal to this value, which should make the DEM curve down.

--curvature-in-shadow-weight <double (default: 0)>

The weight to give to the curvature in shadow constraint.

--lit-curvature-dist <double (default: 0)>

If using a curvature in shadow, start phasing it in this far from the shadow boundary in the lit region (in units of pixels).

--shadow-curvature-dist <double (default: 0)>

If using a curvature in shadow, have it fully phased in this far from shadow boundary in the shadow region (in units of pixels).

--integrability-constraint-weight <float (default: 0.0)>

Use the integrability constraint from Horn 1990 with this value of its weight (experimental).

--smoothness-weight-pq <float (default: 0.0)>

Smoothness weight for p and q, when the integrability constraint is used. A larger value will result in a smoother solution (experimental).

--num-haze-coeffs <integer (default: 0)>

Set this to 1 to model the problem as image = exposure * albedo * reflectance + haze, where haze is a single value for each image. This models a small quantity of stray light entering the lens due to scattering and other effects. Use --float-haze to actually optimize the haze (it starts as 0). It will be written as <output prefix>-haze.txt (ignore all columns of numbers in that file except the first one).

--float-haze

If specified, float the haze coefficients as part of the optimization, if haze is modeled, so if --num-haze-coeffs is 1.

--haze-prefix <string (default: “”)>

Use this prefix to read initial haze values (filename is <haze prefix>-haze.txt). The file format is the same as what the tool writes itself, when triggered by the earlier options. If haze is modeled, it will be initially set to 0 unless read from such a file, and will be floated or not depending on whether --float-haze is on. The final haze values will be saved to <output prefix>-haze.txt.

--gradient-weight <float (default: 0.0)>

The weight given to the cost function term which consists of sums of squares of first-order derivatives. A larger value will result in shallower slopes but less noise. This can be used in conjunction with --smoothness-weight. It is suggested to experiment with this with a value of 0.0001 - 0.01, while reducing the smoothness weight to a very small value.

--save-sparingly

Avoid saving any results except the adjustments and the DEM, as that’s a lot of files.

--camera-position-step-size <integer (default: 1)>

Larger step size will result in more aggressiveness in varying the camera position if it is being floated (which may result in a better solution or in divergence).

--threads <integer (default: 8)>

How many threads each process should use. This will be changed to 1 for ISIS cameras when --use-approx-camera-models is not set, as ISIS is single-threaded. Not all parts of the computation benefit from parallelization.

--cache-size-mb <integer (default = 1024)>

Set the system cache size, in MB.

--tile-size <integer (default: 256 256)>

Image tile size used for multi-threaded processing.

--no-bigtiff

Tell GDAL to not create bigtiffs.

--tif-compress <None|LZW|Deflate|Packbits (default: LZW)>

TIFF compression method.

-v, --version

Display the version of software.

-h, --help

Display this help message.